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History of Computers

The development of the modern day computer was the result of advances in technologies and man's need to quantify. Papyrus helped early man to record language and numbers. The abacus was one of the first counting machines.. Some of the earlier mechanical counting machines lacked the technology to make the design work. For instance, some had parts made of wood prior to metal manipulation and manufacturing. Imagine the wear on wooden gears. This history of computers site includes the names of early pioneers of math and computing and links to related sites about the History of Computers, for further study. This site would be a good Web adjunct to accompany any book on the History of Computers or Introduction to Computers. The "H" Section includes a link to the History of the Web Beginning at CERN which includes Bibliography and Related Links. Hitmill.com strives to always include related links for a broader educational experience. The material was originally divided into Part 1 & Part 2

[A]  [B]  [C]  [D]  [E]  [F]  [G]  [H]  [I]  [J]  [K]  [L]  [M] [N]  [O]  [P]  [Q]  [R]  [S]  [T]  [U]  [V]  [W]  [X]  [Y]  [Z] 8-Bit Operating Systems (Armory.Com) Classic 8-bit Computers -A- A Brief History of Computers and Networks (GoldenInk.Com) A Chronology of Computer History (Cyberstreet.Com) A Chronology of Personal Computers (kpolsson - islandnet.com) A Few Quotes from Silicon Valley History A Journey Through the History of Information Technology Photos: History of Computing Information Artificial Intelligence, History of A Timeline of Computer and Internet History ABACUS The Abacus  (Hitmill.com: Good pictures, overview, brief history, definition, counting boards, bibliography, and links for further study) ADA Ada was a US governmental (DoD) developed programming language. The standard was originally known as Ada83, but this is now obsolete, as it was recently "overhauled" and re-born as Ada95. This is now the preferred standard and implementation of the Ada programming language. Read more about it: Ada Programming at U. of Mich. Ada Programming Resources (Hitmill.com) Introduction to Ada95 (embedded.com) Mission Critical Programming Concepts with Ada95: Introduction to the Ada Programming Language Training Class (ddci.com) AIKEN, HOWARD HATHAWAY Howard Hathaway Aiken and the Mark I Howard Aiken: Makin' A Computer Wonder Howard Hathaway Aiken, Computer Pioneer Howard Aiken's Harvard Mark I ALTAIR Computer Altair 8800 (Wikipedia) Introduction The Revolution Begins (David Bunnell) The Altair 8800 and Ed Roberts Altair History (onlineethics.org) Early History of the Personal Computer (by Thayer Watkins at San Jose State University) Brief History of the Altair (highgate.comm.sfu.ca) The Virtual Altair Museum" Ed Roberts Interview (virualaltair.com) What Good is a Computer Without Software? (virtualaltair.com) How the Personal Computer Was Born (sas.org) Looking Back on Nearly Three Decades of Personal Computing (by Forrest M. Mims III) Ed Roberts and the MITS Altair How the Altair Began (by Stan Veit, the Computer Editor of Popular Electronics Magazine) Chronology of Personal Computers 1975 Open Letter to Hobbyists from Bill Gates, February 3, 1976 PDF copy of An Open Letter To Hobbyists Ramblings From Ed Roberts, March 1976 ANALYTICAL ENGINE The Analytical Engine, Table of Contents Analytical Engine/Babbage APPLE/MACINTOSH Apple Computer history (apple-history.com) Steve Jobs Information Page Woz.org Making the Macintosh (stanford.edu) The Apple Museum (theapplemuseum.com) Books on Apple History MacPicks (Mac News, Reviews, E-zines) MacPlaces ARPA, Forerunner of ARPANET and the Internet ARPA: The Early Days of ARPA, Forerunner of the Internet ATANASOFF, JOHN VINCENT The John Vincent Atanasoff Virtual Archive Iowa State University Department of Computer Science, birthplace of the electronic digital computer. Atanasoff Biography (Hien Chris Do) Washington Post Obituary Secret of a Genius: Drive Fast and Don't Look Back (This is an article about John Atanasoff.) Inventors of the Modern Computer This article from the Minining Company discusses the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, John Vincent Atanasoff, and Clifford Berry. ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER Reconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (Article from Ames Lab) ABC Public Showings: November 1996 and October 1997 -B- BABBAGE, CHARLES Charles Babbage (1791-1871 was born 26 Dec 1791, the son of a London banker. In his youth he had his own private instructor in algebra and by the time he attended Trinity College, Cambridge, he was advanced in knowledge beyond his tutors in mathematics. In 1811, he co-founded the Analytical Society to promote continental mathematics and to reform the mathematics of Newton taught at the University at that time. He worked on the calculus of functions in his twenties. After being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816, Babbage played a role in the development of the Astronomical Society in 1820. In 1821 he invented the Difference Engine to compile mathematical tables. The Difference Engine was completed in 1832. Then he began work on a machine that could do any type of calculation, and this machine was the Analytical Engine completed about 1856. To learn more about Charles Babbage and his contributions to society, mathetics, engineering, astronomy, and more.... see the following links: Pioneers: Charles Babbage Charles Babbage Biographical Notes The Babbage Pges: Biography Babbage's Analytical Engine Charles Babbage Institute (U. of Minn.) Charles Babbage - Bibliographical notes  (cs.vt.edu) Picture of Charles Babbage (cs.vt.edu) BACKUS, JOHN Biography of John Backus  Leader of the team that developed Fortran programming language John Backus, Recipient of Alan M. Turing Award BELL, GORDON Gordon Bell Microsoft Bay Area Research Center; worked on design of PDP-6 at DEC, an antecedent of the PDP-10, one of the first mPs and the first time-sharing computer. MyLifeBits Project: Vannevar Bush's 1945 Memex Vision Fulfilled (research.microsoft.com) BOOLE, GEORGE George Boole - Genius of Lincoln (Roger Parsons) The Calculus of Logic by George Boole (maths.tcd.ie) Papers by George Boole (ucc.ie - University Library County Cork, Ireland) George Boole Invents Boolean Algebra George Boole, Biographical Notes (st-and.ac.uk) BRICKLIN, DANIEL (Co-Creator of VisiCalc) Daniel Bricklin, First Spreadsheet,VisiCalc Daniel Bricklin's Web Page Daniel Bricklin Biography, Long Form BUNNELL, DAVID (Altair, MITS, PC Mag., PC World, MacWorld) The Third Culture: David Bunnell (edge.org) Prosumer Media Upside Tech Magazine's Downside (S.F. Chronicle) BUSH, VANNEVAR As We May Think (by permission of theatlantic.com) Article of 1945 by Vannevar Bush Vannevar Bush Biographical Notes (www.iath.virginia.edu) Vannevar Bush (livinginternet.com) BYRON, LADY AUGUSTA ADA Ada Byron (Yale.edu, contributed by Dr. Betty Toole) Ada's Notes Contributed by Dr. Betty Toole, Yale.Edu The Birth of the Computer Revolution Yale.edu Pictures of Lady Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace -C- Calculator Reference, Research Page Chronology of Computer History (cyberstreet.com) Chronology of Personal Computers (Ken Polsson) Computing Science, History of Computers: From the Past to the Present C++ Programming Language History of the C++ Programming Language (hitmill.com) History of C++ (cplusplus.com) CALCULATORS Timeline History of Calculators CERF, VINTON G. Co-inventor of TCP/IP Protocol for the Internet ICANN Biographical Notes about Vinton G. Cerf Vint's Personal Home Page Read about the first 35 years of the "Internet" How the Internet Came to Be as told by Vinton Cerf Vinton G. Cerf (isoc.org) Vinton G. Cerf (Wikipedia page) Vinton Cerf on the future of e-mail (ComputerWorld: 2001 article) From Inventing the Enterprise: Vinton G. Cerf (cio.com) CODD, EDGAR F. Database Pioneer, Key Theorist of Databases Edgar Codd, Database Pioneer, Dead at 79 (usatoday.com) Edgar Codd, Key Theorist of Databases Dies at 79 in Florida COLOSSUS The Colossus Rebuild Project (codesandciphers.org.uk) The Colossus Rebuild Project (project-x.org.uk) Lorenz Ciphers and the Colossus 1940-1944 The Colossus Colossus Electronic Programmable (to a limited extent) Computer Colossus Computer Computer Conservation Society Computer Conservation Society -D- DIJKSTRA, EDSGER WYBE Mathematician, Computer Scientist,   Shortest Path Algorithm, Computer Programmer, Educator Biographical Notes: Edsger W. Dijkstra (Wipikedia.org) Edsger Dijkstra, The shortest-path algorithm Dijkstra's Algorith (Wikipedia.org) E. W. Dijkstra Archive (utexas.edu) Dijkstra's Algorith (uwa.edu.au) GoTo Statement Considered Harmful by Edsger Dijkstra, 1968;    Article began the structured programming movement. How Do We Tell Truths that Might Hurt? by Edsger Dijkstra, 1975:   On old problems in programming Edsger Dijkstra on universities Edsger Dijkstra:RIP (death notice) DIGITAL IMAGING Mona Lisa, Digital Image from 1965 A Brief History of Digital Imaging -E- ECKERT, J. PRESPER J. Presper Eckert Interview The Eckert/ENIAC Collection ENGLEBART, DOUGLAS C. AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT: A Conceptual Framework A summary report prepared by Douglas C. Englebart for the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, October 1962. Original Computer Mouse Patent Computer Mouse Demo (video info.) Facts About the Invention of the Computer Mouse The Computer Mouse The Mousesite - a resource for exploring the history of human computer interaction beginning with the pioneering work of Douglas Engelbart and his colleagues at Stanford Research Institute in the 1960s. ENIAC The ENIAC Story (army.mil) A Report on the ENAIC (army.mil) ENAIC - The Army Sponsored Revolution (army.mil) John W. Mauchly and the Development of the ENIAC Computer (upenn.edu) The Eniac (about.com) ENIAC Computer Invention (ideafinder.com) Jean Bartik, The First ENIAC Programmer Ethernet Networking With Ethernet (entertainmentdesignmag.com) -F- Fibonnaci Numbers Fibonnaci Numbers Definition Fibonnaci Numbers and the Golden Section -F, G- First, Second, Third, and Fourth Generation Computers Features of each generation are discussed. -G- Google.Com's Computer History Links Great Microprocessors of the Past and Present Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century GATES, WILLIAM H III An Open Letter To Hobbyists, by Bill Gates Bill Gate's Web Page at Microsoft Bill Gates: Biog. notes and p;icture The "Unofficial" Bill Gates page Focus Magazine's Interview with Bill Gates Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation An Open Letter to Hobbyists - by Bill Gates, 1976 (blinkenlights.com) William H. Gates III Before Microsoft Bill Gates Wealth Index GOOD, IRVING JOHN (JACK) Roanoke Times Article about Jack Good, a memeber of the team that broke the ENIGMA code during WWII Irving John (Jack) Good Cryptologist, statistician GORE, AL Al Gore's Support of the Internet     by Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G. Cerf Gore to Get Lifetime Award for Internet Gore Never Did Claim That He Invented the Internet GOSLING, JAMES wrote the Java programming language From Inventing the Enterprise: James Gosling (cio.com) James Gosling, On the Java Road Java - James Gosling (about.com) Graphical User Interface Graphical User Interface History of the Graphical User Interface Graphical User Interface, GUI (apple-history.com) Mac OS X Aqua Human Interface Guidelines (developer.apple.com) GUI Gallery The History of Graphical User Interfaces -H- Historic Computer Images (army.mil) History of Computers Article by aleembawany.com History of Computer Viruses and Attacks (securityfocus.com) History of Computing (ei.cs.vt.edu) A compiled directory of categorical links. History of Computing: Virtual Museum of Computing (VMoC) This site is a virtual museum which includes an eclectic collection of WWW hyperlinks connected with the history of computing and on-line computer-based exhibits. History of the Internet (Roads and Crossroads of Internet History (Gregory Gromov's site) History of the Web Beginning at CERN HOPPER, GRACE Grace Hopper The Wit and Wisdom of Grace Hopper Inventing the Enterprise: Grace Murray Hopper (cio.com) Hewlett-Packard Hewlett-Packard, History -- Founding Fathers The Making of Hewlitt-Packard Dave Packard's 11 Simple Rules -I- IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Internet History: Roads and Crossroads of Internet History (Gregory Gromov) IBM IBM Vintage Personal Computers IEEE IEEE/ISTO Industry Standards and Technology Organization IEEE Computer Society Home Portal IEEE Computer Society History of Computing IEEE Annals of Computer History IEEE 802.11b - Wireless Ethernet Article by Al Petrick, Vice Chairman of the IEEE 802.11 Standards Committee Internet Explorer The History of Internet Explorer -J- JACQUARD, JOSEPH-MARIE Book:  Jacquard's Web: How a Hand Loom Led to the Birth of the Information Age by James Essinger. Read about this book at Amazon.com Jacquard Loom The Jacquard Loom (columbia.edu) Jacquard's Punched Card Industrial Revolution: Timeline of Textile Machinery Biographical Note on Joseph-Marie Jacquard Biography of Joseph-Marie Jacquard JOBS, STEVE PAUL Steve Paul Jobs Bio. -K- KAHN, ROBERT E (co-inventor of TCP/IP Technology for Internet) Robert E. Kahn Biographical Notes Robert E. Kahn Awarded National Medal of Technology KING, ADA BYRON (See BYRON, AUGUSTA ADA) KLEINROCK, LEONARD Leonard Kleinrock Biography: The Birth of the Internet (ucla.edu) Leonard Kleinrock was the inventor of the Internet technology known as packet-switching. Leonard Kleinrock's home page -L- LEIBNITZ, GOTFRIED von Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) LICKLIDER, J.C.R. Man-Computer Symbiosis by J.C.R. Licklider (PDF file, Memex.org) The Computer as a Communication Device (PDF file, Memex.org) by J.C.R. Licklider and Robert Taylor (of ARPA) JCR Licklider (columbia.edu) J.C.R. Licklider Biography (thocp.net) J.C.R. Licklider (livinginternet.com) Six degrees of J.C.R. Licklider traces computer evolution (St.Louis Post Dispatch/wustl.edu) J.C.R. Licklider in Memoriam (MIT.edu) The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal (book, by M. Mitchell Waldrop -- see Amazon.com book site) -M- Mind Machine Museum (SFSU.edu) MAUCHLY, JOHN W. John W. Mauchly and the Development of the ENIAC Computer METCALF, ROBERT M. Ethernet From Inventing the Enterprise: Robert M. Metcalf (cio.com) Ethernet (acm.org) Ethernet PDF Paper: IEEE 802.3 Mouse (See also: Englebart, Douglas) The Mouse Site -N- NELSON, TED Project Xanadu The original hypertext project... Ted Nelson home page NYGAARD, KRISTEN Notes About Kristen Nygaard -O- -P- Past Notable Women of Computing and Mathematics PC Computers, Pre-IBM Pioneers (Wired Magazine's List of Pioneers of Computing) Pioneers of Computing PASCAL, BLAISE Blaise Pascal Quotes to Inspire You Blaise Pascal Biography PDP Computers PDP11's on the Bribane Project for Totalisators by Brian Conlan What is a PDP? (Ken Olson/DEC) PDP-8 (pdp8.net) PDP-11 History (telnet.hu) -Q- -R- RITCHIE, DENNIS Dennis Ritchie Home Page Interview with Dennis M. Ritchie Dennis M. Ritchie timeline Dennis M. Ritchie: From Inventing the Enterprise -S- Shareware, History of Silicon Valley History (netvalley.com) Smithsonian Institute's Computer History Collection Shortest Path Algorith See Dijkstra, Edsger STIBITZ, GEORGE R. George R. Stibitz, Computer Inventor (1904-1995) George R. Stibitz in Inventors Hall of Fame George R. Stibitz Curriculum Vitae George R. Stibitz, Biography George R. Stibitz, 1904-1995 SYSTEM R System R (mcjones.org) System R led to the introduction of the SQL language -T- Tech. History (si.edu) The Charles Babbage Institute This is located at the University of Minnesota Many computer subjects including the history of computers... The Evolution of the Computer The History of Shareware The IEEE Annals of the History of Computing The Revolutionaries The Smithsonian Computer History and Information Technology Timeline: The History of Computers (Maxmon.com) Well done! Events influencing the history and development of computing. Tools for Thought (Howard Rheingold) TOTALISATORS History of Totalisators by Brian Conlon. TURING, ALAN The Alan Turing Home Page Alan Mathison Turing (1912-1954) Alan Turing and COLOSSUS -U- UNIVAC COMPUTER Univac Memories (fourmilab.ch) Book: The Unsung Heroes of the PC Age -V- Virtual Museum of Computing Viruses: History of Computer Viruses Wearable Computing at media.MIT.edu What was the first computer and who built it?" Wired Magazine:Browse by Person This is a list not to be missed. Enjoy. von NEUMANN, JOHN LOUIS John Lewis von Neumann (1903-1957) John von Neumann (Click on hardware in the background of this next reference) von Neumann Digital Computer -W- WANG, AN Dr. An Wang (Magnetic Core Memory) (mit.edu) An Wang, Hall of Fame Inventor Profile Book: Dr. an Wang Computer Pioneer The Doctor and His Calculators About Wang An Wang: The Core of the Computer Era Wang system photos Photo 1968 Wang Calculator Wang 363E Calculator Wang BASIC vs. Microsoft BASIC WILKES, MAURICE VINCENT Maurice Vincent Wilkes (vt.edu) Maurice Vincent Wilkes, Brief Biography WIRTH, NIKLAUS Niklaus Wirth (kzoo.edu) Niklaus Wirth was the inventor of Pascal, and other languages. WOZNIAK, STEVEN Steven Wozniak Bio. (cs.vt.edu) Official Website of the "WOZ" Apple Computer history -X- XANADU Project Xanadu The original hypertext project... Xanadu Australia: Problem Definition Xanadu Secrets Become Udanax Open-Source (1999) Marc Steigler's 1989 Article Published in the February 1990 Edition of Unix Review is about Hypertext Publishing -Y- -Z-  ZUSE, KONRAD Konrad Zuse (Use the search engine at this next site to put in the name of Konrad Zuse, in order to navigate to this topic.) A photograph of Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse's Z3 Computer Konrad Zuse And His Computers Real Knowledge - Your Online Source For Computer Information Learn another language with Rosetta Stone Related Links Having Computer History Significance Hitmill.com has a blog for students about Computers, Internet, Digital Graphics, and the History of Computers, with weekly blogs at http://galcalia.wordpress.com. The I.T. Twitter where we tweet to students is http://www.twitter.com/Calgalia. Why we are not on Facebook: Facebook has huge security issues in which personal security of each individual is frequently breeched and in protest, we are not participating by having a Facebook link... people running the company need more coursework in ethics, and computer server security, and how to protect the indivdual information of their clients. A company should never ask a user to opt out of a general plan when the user may not even be aware of the change. The company has a committment to allow a user to "opt-in" to the plan instead, and to advertise the availability of the plan, once, to users. Facebook is not allowing the user to decide who gets their personal information. If you have a friend's list and any member of that list is gaming, facebook states they can use your personal information and photographs, by association. Read privacy rules before playing any Facebook game. It is the personal belief of this site, that the Facebook social network is not ethical. We opt to not join Facebook because we disagree with their decisions about people's privacy. Hitmill - History of Computers, Part 2 Computing Research Links Futuristic Computers History of the Web, Beginning at CERN How did early California history later impact California settlement in the 20th Century and the growth of Silicon Valley? Read about early California history, geology, geography in the following links: [California History Links] [California Indians]  [California Geography and Geology]

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